Aerial photograph of a section of the Mycenaean-period processional road that connected the settlement center with the city’s necropolis in the area of Riza, Tzannata (SE Cephalonia – Heraeum plain). Excavation by Dr. Antonis Vasilakis, Honorary Ephor of Antiquities, former Ephor of Prehistoric and Classical Antiquities of Cephalonia, Ithaca, Zakynthos. Photo: Kostas Koklanos.
The evidence of Homeric topography as recorded in the Odyssey confirms that the center of Homeric Ithaca is in SE Cephalonia and not on modern Ithaki, nor on Lefkada, nor on the Paliki peninsula, nor in any other part of Cephalonia, nor elsewhere.
The main reasons that led the ruling class of the Cephallenians in the Mycenaean period to choose SE Cephalonia as the administrative seat of their insular kingdom will be analyzed below.
Dedicated to all our fellow rowers, and especially to the memory of all those who “departed” along the way. Text & Copyright: Hettie Putman Cramer & Makis Metaxas
Introduction
The purpose of this post—regardless of what you may have read in our earlier writings on the topography of Homeric Ithaca—is to provide the reader with the opportunity to evaluate, with their own knowledge and judgment, those passages of the Homeric epics that record the geographical position of Homeric Ithaca in relation to its wider surroundings, and to agree or disagree with our position that the center of Homeric Ithaca lay in SE Cephalonia.
Let us therefore turn to the matter itself.
Suppose you have not yet formed an opinion about where the center of Homeric Ithaca was located in Mycenaean times; or perhaps you have not had the time to study Homer’s descriptions in detail; or perhaps you have read them and already formed your own view; or finally, you may be one of the many who are completely confused by the multitude of theories about Homeric Ithaca. And suppose someone were to ask you:
- Where would you estimate—according to your own logic—that the center of Homeric Ithaca ought to have been located in the Mycenaean era?
- Should it have been on Lefkada?
- On modern Ithaki?
- On Cephalonia? And if so, where exactly—on its western side, in its center, along its southeastern shores, or in the north?
If you were one of these people, what answer would you give?
The truth, of course, is that your answer would be of much greater interest if you were acquainted with the arguments of all the theories concerning Homeric Ithaca—including, naturally, our own, which supports the position that the island of Cephalonia was, in fact, Ithaca in the age of Odysseus.
Our own views, which explain how and why the present island of Cephalonia as a whole is Homeric Ithaca, we have already analyzed over the past 28 years in books, papers, interviews, and, for the general public, in simplified and fragmentary posts through the blog Homer’s Ithaca in both Greek and English.
(see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/)
As for other differing opinions from our own, you may easily search for them on the internet, e.g. “Homeric Ithaca = Lefkada,” “Homeric Ithaca = Ithaki,” “Homeric Ithaca = Paliki peninsula,” “Homeric Ithaca = Erissos peninsula,” “Homeric Ithaca = Krani,” etc.
(As a matter of principle, we do not consider it proper to take responsibility for indicating which of these you should read, as they are too numerous and often mutually contradictory.)
Most of these theories can be found in our related post entitled: “The main theories and studies on the location of Homeric Ithaca from the Renaissance until today.”
(see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2014/08/where-on-earth-is-homers-ithaca.html)
We therefore invite you to a kind of “conference,” where we will present, as concisely as possible, our own view in contrast with other areas that claim to have been the seat of the Mycenaean center of Homeric Ithaca. You, on your side, with your own critical thinking and sometimes playing the role of “devil’s advocate,” are invited to form your own judgment after carefully and deeply studying the Homeric references, so that at the end of this post you can provide your own answers—agreeing or disagreeing—with the many questions raised.
General Description
It is well known that the identification of the city (ásty) of Homeric (Mycenaean) Ithaca—where the megaron, the cemeteries, and the residences of the ruling class would have stood—has long been considered one of the “holy grails” of world archaeology.
Hundreds of archaeologists, researchers, and antiquarians have invested immense energy, funds, and time in attempting to locate it in all possible sites within the Ionian region and, of course, on the island of Cephalonia, which, according to our studies, was Ithaca in the age of Odysseus.
According to the conclusions of these studies, some of which in popularized form have been published on the blog Homer’s Ithaca (see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/), Homeric (Mycenaean) Ithaca was neither modern Lefkada nor modern Ithaki, nor any partial region of Cephalonia as many theories have suggested.
The so-called Homeric Ithaca, according to the results of our research (presented in an earlier post), was the entire island of Cephalonia. This island distinguishes itself from all others in the Ionian Sea by having as its emblem the pride of the Cephallenians—and of Odysseus himself—the majestic, forest-clad, divine Mount Ainos, also known as the “Great Mountain.”
(see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/11/blog-post_10.html)
It is this renowned and lofty Nêriton, the densely wooded mountain which, according to Homer, was clearly visible beneath Cape Pheai (modern Katakolo, in the Peloponnese). Both Odysseus and the goddess Athena invoked it as the most recognizable landmark of his homeland.
(see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2016/01/blog-post_14.html)
- But where exactly was the ásty (the settlement center, the palace of the wanax, and the necropolis)?
- Was it in the west of the island? The north? The east? The center? Or in the south?
Our position is that the geographical location of the Homeric Ithacan city is revealed with great clarity in the descriptions of Telemachus’ journeys to and from Pylos and Ithaca.
ἡ δὲ Φεὰς ἐπέβαλλεν ἐπειγομένη Διὸς οὔρῳ,
ἠδὲ παρ' Ἤλιδα δῖαν, ὅθι κρατέουσιν Ἐπειοί.
ἔνθεν δ' αὖ νήσοισιν ἐπιπροέηκε θοῇσιν,
ὁρμαίνων, ἤ κεν θάνατον φύγοι ἦ κεν ἁλοίη. (Od. 15.297–300)
Translation:
Then (the ship), driven by a favorable wind from Zeus, passed by the Phaea and Elis, which is ruled by the Epeians, and there he set sail for the islands of the Thoians (today's Oxiae), and he considered in his mind whether he would be saved or perished. (Od. 15.297–300)
.................................................................................................................................................
αὐτὰρ ἐπὴν πρώτην ἀκτὴν Ἰθάκης ἀφίκηαι,
νῆα μὲν ἐς πόλιν ὀτρῦναι καὶ πάντας ἑταίρους,
αὐτὸς δὲ πρώτιστα συβώτην εἰσαφικέσθαι,
ὅς τοι ὑῶν ἐπίουρος, ὁμῶς δέ τοι ἤπια οἶδεν. (Od. 15.33–39)
Map of western Greece showing the island kingdom of Odysseus, the ancient Pheai (Katakolo), and the first southern coast of Cephalonia (the toponym Skala). It was in these waters that Telemachus’ ship sailed on its journeys to and from Pylos and Ithaca.
"To get to the bottom of it”
We maintain that regardless of which island one may believe Homeric Ithaca to have been, the position of its “first shore”/πρώτη ἀκτή (the southernmost) when approached from the south is, by necessity, a very specific point.
For the island of Cephalonia, the matter is absolutely clear. The first—i.e. the southernmost and farthest—shore of modern Cephalonia (which was then Homeric Ithaca), for anyone familiar with the island’s geomorphology, is indisputably the coastal zone around the modern village of Skala, whose farthest extremity is marked by Cape Mounda.
[Note 1] Supporters of the theories that place Homeric Ithaca on the Paliki peninsula or in northern Cephalonia, in our opinion, must provide a convincing answer to this very basic reference, which is the “Ariadne’s thread” for verifying Homeric topography.
[Note 2] For those who find difficulty in interpreting the connection between Telemachus’ ship sailing past the Thoëan islands (the Oxeiae) while at the same time receiving Athena’s command to head toward the “first shore” of Ithaca (i.e. Cephalonia), we recommend consulting our post “Asteris: the phantom island of Homeric topography” (see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/10/blog-post_15.html). There one will learn how and why this island played such a decisive role in the narrative of the once independent epic of the Telemachy before it was combined with the Phaeacis and the Nekyia to form the unified Odyssey.
Thus, according to the topography of the epic, we know with mathematical precision the spot toward which Telemachus steers his ship to make landfall.
From there, according to the descriptions, he arrives after a short walk at the place called “Korakos Petri/”Κόρακος πέτρῃ (“Raven’s Rock”), and subsequently at his palace, located in the same broader region as the “first shore.” (see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/01/1.html)
αὐτος δὲ πρώτιστα συβώτην εἰσαφικέσθαι,ὅς τοι ὑῶν ἐπίουρος, ὁμῶς δέ τοι ἤπια οἶδε,
παῖδά τε σὸν φιλέει καὶ ἐχέφρονα Πηνελόπειαν.
δήεις τόν γε σύεσσι παρήμενον· αἱ δὲ νέμονται
πὰρ Κόρακος πέτρῃ ἐπί τε κρήνῃ Ἀρεθούσῃ,
ἔσθουσαι βάλανον μενοεικέα καὶ μέλαν ὕδωρ
πίνουσαι, τά θ᾽ ὕεσσι τρέφει τεθαλυῖαν ἀλοιφήν. (οδ.ν 405-410)
Translation:
But be careful, first get to the swineherd
who not only cares for the pigs, but also wants your good,
your son loves and respects wise Penelope.
Near the pigs you will see him sitting. They graze
near the Raven’s Rock and the Arethousa fountain,
chewing acorns that are due to them and drinking murky water,
these feed them rich swill. (Od.13.405-410)
The Key Landmarks of Homeric Topography Related to the Location of the Ásty
This region, according to the Homeric texts, lay on the southeastern side of the island, close to the “first” shore (πρώτην ἀκτὴν Ἰθάκης) when approached from the south—the eschatiē (εσχατιή) or “extremity”—that is, the southernmost shore of the island (region of Skala–Poros) (Od. 14.96–108; Od. 15.33–39).
It was to this region that not only Telemachus, but also Odysseus himself was directed by Athena in order to meet his son returning from Pylos. Odysseus set out from the "Cave of the Nymphs/Σπήλαιο των νυμφών", and walked for many hours before reaching this area. (see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/01/1.html)
Evidence from Homeric Topography Confirming that the Center of Ithaca Was in SE Cephalonia
First Confirmation
Question:
- Does this description not recall the very same Melissani cave?
- And if indeed this description corresponds to that celebrated cave of Homeric Ithaca, then does it not make sense that the Homeric text has Odysseus set out from there in the early morning and, walking through forested mountain ridges, arrive only by afternoon—after many hours of walking—at the island’s southern region known as “Korakos Petri”?
- Might this place be related to the still extant toponym ΚΟΡΩΝΟΙ Koronoi (literally, “the Crows”), i.e. the region of the ravens in SE Cephalonia, which remarkably enough continues to bear this name to this day?
- (see lexicon entries: Kόραξ – Kουρούνα – Kορωνίς)
- Can all these coincidences truly be mere chance?
We argue that they are not at all accidental, but rather describe a real landscape with prominent landmarks—“speaking images”—which both highlight and identify one of the most recognizable signs of ancient Ithaca (now Cephalonia), namely the Melissani cave, and simultaneously point to the broader area around the ásty at Κόρακος πέτρη (Korakos Petri)“Raven’s Rock”. This area, according to the descriptions, lies at a considerable distance from the Cave of the Nymphs and corresponds precisely to the region of ΚΟΡΩΝΟΙ -Koronoi- (“ the region of the Ravens”). Situated near the first shore at Skala in the southeastern extremity of Cephalonia, the area derives its name from and is marked by a huge, spectacular fractured rock still today called “Korakopetra” (“Raven’s Rock”), because crows continue to nest there. (see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2016/01/blog-post.html)
Second Confirmation
According to the epic, Eumaeus, from the location Κόρακος πέτρῃ (“Korakos Petri”) near the first shore, pointed out to Odysseus the herds grazing on this extreme edge (ἐσχατιῇ -eschatiē) of Ithaca, as well as those on the opposite mainland shores—across from Ithaca, in the region of the Achelous River and the northwestern Elis (modern Kyllini). (Odyssey 14. 96–108).
ἦ γάρ οἱ ζωή γ᾽ ἦν ἄσπετος· οὔ τινι τόσσηἀνδρῶν ἡρώων, οὔτ᾽ ἠπείροιο μελαίνης
οὔτ᾽ αὐτῆς Ἰθάκης· οὐδὲ ξυνεείκοσι φωτῶν
ἔστ᾽ ἄφενος τοσσοῦτον· ἐγὼ δέ κέ τοι καταλέξω.
δώδεκ᾽ ἐν ἠπείρῳ ἀγέλαι· τόσα πώεα οἰῶν,
τόσσα συῶν συβόσια, τόσ᾽ αἰπόλια πλατέ᾽ αἰγῶν
βόσκουσι ξεῖνοί τε καὶ αὐτοῦ βώτορες ἄνδρες.
ἐνθάδε δ᾽ αἰπόλια πλατέ᾽ αἰγῶν ἕνδεκα πάντα
ἐσχατιῇ βόσκοντ᾽, ἐπὶ δ᾽ ἀνέρες ἐσθλοὶ ὄρονται.
τῶν αἰεί σφιν ἕκαστος ἐπ᾽ ἤματι μῆλον ἀγινεῖ,
ζατρεφέων αἰγῶν ὅς τις φαίνηται ἄριστος.
αὐτὰρ ἐγὼ σῦς τάσδε φυλάσσω τε ῥύομαί τε,
καί σφι συῶν τὸν ἄριστον ἐῢ κρίνας ἀποπέμπω. (Odyssey 14. 96–108)
Translation:
For truly he (Odysseus) owned immense wealth. None of the heroes, neither on the dark mainland nor on Ithaca itself, possessed such riches—not even twenty men together had so much. Across on the mainland there are twelve herds of cattle, as many flocks of sheep, as many droves of swine, and as many great herds of goats, tended by hired men and our own herdsmen. Here, on this extreme edge of Ithaca, there are eleven large herds of goats, all abundant, supervised by faithful men. Each day one of them brings a goat for the suitors, whichever of the well-fed goats seems best. As for me, I pasture and guard these swine, and select the very best among them to send away. (Odyssey 14. 96–108)
- From which point, then, could one have had visual contact with the opposite mainland shores—those of Aetolia and northwestern Peloponnesus (Kyllini)—to describe such herds being maintained there?
- From the island of Lefkada?
- From modern Ithaki?
- From the Paliki peninsula?
- From the Erissos peninsula?
- From ancient Krane?
- Or rather from the eschatiē—the extreme, southernmost shore of SE Cephalonia?
The answer is obvious: from the eschatiē—the southeastern edge of Cephalonia, i.e., the region of Koronoi. This information confirms that the area in question was indeed in the SE of the island and nowhere else (not Lefkada, not Ithaki, not Paliki, not Erissos), because only from this geographic position—the extreme southern shore—does one have direct line-of-sight with the opposite mainland shores of Aetolia and especially of northwestern Peloponnesus (Elis-Kyllini), where the epic explicitly records that Odysseus maintained large herds of cattle and horses. (see next confirmation).
Third Confirmation
The Odyssey describes this area as having daily, close, and well-organized maritime connections with Elis (modern Kyllini), as well as with the opposite shores near the mouth of the Achelous River. This work was apparently carried out “professionally” by the so-called porthmees (ferrymen), who transported both people and animals across the channel.
τοῖσι δ᾽ ἐπὶ τρίτος ἦλθε Φιλοίτιος, ὄρχαμος ἀνδρῶν,βοῦν στεῖραν μνηστῆρσιν ἄγων καὶ πίονας αἶγας.
πορθμῆες δ᾽ ἄρα τούς γε διήγαγον, οἵ τε καὶ ἄλλους
ἀνθρώπους πέμπουσιν, ὅτις σφέας εἰσαφίκηται. (Odyssey 20. 185–188)
Translation:
Then came Philoitios, leader of the herdsmen,
bringing for the suitors a barren cow and fat goats.
Ferry-men had brought them across—those who also
ferry other people, whoever comes their way. (Odyssey 20. 185–188
The epic also tells us that the Ithacans, and Odysseus himself, maintained herds on those mainland shores, which were ferried back to Ithaca by boat.
"Ἀντίνο᾽, ἦ ῥά τι ἴδμεν ἐνὶ φρεσίν, ἦε καὶ οὐκί,
ὁππότε Τηλέμαχος νεῖτ᾽ ἐκ Πύλου ἠμαθόεντος;
νῆά μοι οἴχετ᾽ ἄγων· ἐμὲ δὲ χρεὼ γίγνεται αὐτῆς
Ἤλιδ᾽ ἐς εὐρύχορον διαβήμεναι, ἔνθα μοι ἵπποι
δώδεκα θήλειαι, ὑπὸ δ᾽ ἡμίονοι ταλαεργοὶ
ἀδμῆτες· τῶν κέν τιν᾽ ἐλασσάμενος δαμασαίμην." (Od.4. 632-637)
Translation:
Antinous, do we know, or do we not when Telemachus returns from sandy Pylos? He took my ship and left and now I need it I wanted to cross over to the plain of Elis where they graze, twelve mares and untamed, eager mules, I was thinking of bringing one to put on the yoke.(Od.4. 632-637)
Ancient testimony reinforces this. Proclus, in the Telegony, reports:
Οι μνήστορες υπό των προσηκόντων θάπτονται.και Οδυσσεύς θύσας νύμφαις εις Ήλιν αποπλεί επισκεψόμενος τα βουκόλια, και ξενίζεται παρά Πολυξένω,
Translation:
"The suitors were buried by their relatives. Odysseus, after sacrificing to the Nymphs, sailed away to Elis to inspect his cattle and was entertained by Polyxenos." (Procli Excerpta ex Cycli Epici Carminibus, VI Telegony, p. 246).
The Question:
Which region or island lay closest to the shores of Elis (modern Kyllini) so as to allow such close contact, frequent crossings, and supervision of herds there?
-
Lefkada?
-
Modern Ithaki?
-
The Paliki peninsula?
-
The Erissos peninsula?
-
Ancient Krane?
-
Or the southeastern coast of Cephalonia?
Conclusion:
Fourth Confirmation
The Odyssey also records that this specific area of Ithaca offered the shortest and most direct escape route toward the shores of Elis and Pylos. A striking passage is when Eupithes, father of the slain suitor Antinoos, urges the Ithacans to act quickly before Odysseus flees across the sea toward Elis (modern Kyllini) or Pylos:
"ὦ φίλοι, ἦ μέγα ἔργον ἀνὴρ ὅδ᾽ ἐμήσατ᾽ Ἀχαιούς·τοὺς μὲν σὺν νήεσσιν ἄγων πολέας τε καὶ ἐσθλοὺς
ὤλεσε μὲν νῆας γλαφυράς, ἀπὸ δ᾽ ὤλεσε λαούς·
τοὺς δ᾽ ἐλθὼν ἔκτεινε Κεφαλλήνων ὄχ᾽ ἀρίστους,
ἀλλ᾽ ἄγετε, πρὶν τοῦτον ἢ ἐς Πύλον ὦκα ἱκέσθαι
ἢ καὶ ἐς Ἤλιδα δῖαν, ὅθι κρατέουσιν Ἐπειοί,
ἴομεν· ἦ καὶ ἔπειτα κατηφέες ἐσσόμεθ᾽ αἰεί." (Odyssey 24. 426–432)
Translation:
Friends, see what a terrible deed this man has contrived against the Achaeans!He led away with him many noble men and destroyed their hollow ships, and ruined their people.
And now, returning, he has slain the very best of the Cephallenians.
But come, before he reaches swiftly Pylos or even holy Elis, where the Epeians rule,
let us go; otherwise we shall be forever shamed. (Odyssey 24. 426–432)
The Question:
Which region or island offered the nearest and most direct route of escape to Elis (modern Kyllini) and Pylos?
-
Lefkada?
-
Modern Ithaki?
-
The Paliki peninsula?
-
The Erissos peninsula?
-
Ancient Krane?
-
Or the southeastern tip of Cephalonia?
Evidence:
Conclusion:
Correctly, the Homeric text identifies Elis as the nearest road and point of flight. This is only logical if the ásty (urban center) of Homeric Ithaca was located on the southeastern side of the island—directly opposite Elis.
If, instead, Lefkada or modern Ithaki were Homeric Ithaca, the natural escape would not have been Elis, but the nearer mainland coasts of Aetolia and Acarnania. The fact that the Odyssey stresses Elis confirms once more the southeastern Cephalonian identification.
Fifth Confirmation
The area where Odysseus had his palace and estates is described in the Odyssey as renowned for its forests and its abundant springs, which irrigated the fields through flowing channels. This fertility and richness were so remarkable that the fame of Ithaca had reached even Troy:
"αἰεὶ δ᾽ ὄμβρος ἔχει τεθαλυῖά τ᾽ ἐέρση·αἰγίβοτος δ᾽ ἀγαθὴ καὶ βούβοτος· ἔστι μὲν ὕλη
παντοίη, ἐν δ᾽ ἀρδμοὶ ἐπηετανοὶ παρέασι.
τῷ τοι, ξεῖν᾽, Ἰθάκης γε καὶ ἐς Τροίην ὄνομ᾽ ἵκει,
τήν περ τηλοῦ φασὶν Ἀχαιΐδος ἔμμεναι αἴης." (Odyssey 13. 245–249)
Translation:
There is constant rain and heavy dew,
It is good land for goats and cattle to graze.
There are forests of every kind of tree,
and there flow abundant springs with irrigation channels.
Thus, stranger, the name of Ithaca has reached even Troy,
though they say it lies far from the land of Achaea. (Odyssey 13. 245–249
The Question:
Which island corresponds to this description—a land of vast forests, abundant fresh water, countless springs feeding irrigation channels, and fertile fields so renowned that its fame spread to Troy?
-
Modern Lefkada?
-
The dry, rocky island of modern Ithaki?
-
The arid peninsula of Erissos?
-
The peninsula of Paliki?
-
The upland of ancient Krane?
-
Or the southeastern part of Cephalonia?
Evidence :
The southeastern Cephalonia (the territory of the ancient Pronnoi) is uniquely characterized by:
-
The great fir forests of Mount Ainos, symbol of the region and a key source of timber for shipbuilding since the Mycenaean period.
-
Countless perennial springs: Kefalovryso, Palaia Skala, Foukálida, Potistis, Ambelas, Kanalos, Kolokási, and especially the large lake-source "Megali Akoli", which discharges more than 500 cubic meters of fresh water per hour even in summer.
-
Irrigation channels (modern concrete aqueducts) that continue today to irrigate the fertile plain of Herakleion, echoing Homer’s phrase “ἀρδμοὶ ἐπηετανοὶ παρέασι” (“abundant irrigation channels are present”).
This landscape—the lush mountain, evergreen forests, inexhaustible springs, and fertile irrigated fields—is not found in Lefkada or Ithaki, nor in the drier parts of Cephalonia, but exclusively in its southeastern part.
Conclusion:
Unquestionably, the southeastern Cephalonia matches Homer’s description of Ithaca as a land of forests, abundant springs, and fertile irrigated fields. It was precisely these resources—the timber of Ainos and the water-rich plains—that made Homeric Ithaca famous throughout the Mycenaean world, even as far as Troy.
Sixth Confirmation
The Homeric epics emphasize with insistence the existence in Ithaca of a lofty, densely wooded mountain called Neriton. This striking mountain made the island visible (evdieelon/ευδείελον = “easily seen, conspicuous”) from afar—even from below Cape Feai (modern Katakolo) in the Peloponnese.
Visual Evidence:
The magnificent silhouette of Mount Ainos rising above the sea is clearly visible from the western coast of the Peloponnese. (Photo: Panagis Kavallieratos)
Interpretation:
There is no need for extraordinary skill to identify this Homeric mountain. It is, beyond any reasonable doubt, Mount Ainos of Cephalonia—tall, forest-covered, and unmistakable.
-
It is the only mountain in the Ionian Islands that matches Homer’s description of Neriton: lofty (ariprepes/αριπρεπές), wooded (inosifyllon/εινοσίφυλλον), and visible from afar (evdieelon/ευδείελον).
-
Geographically, it belongs to the territory of the ancient Pronnoi, i.e. southeastern Cephalonia.
-
It has little or no relation to the Paliki peninsula, the Erissos peninsula, or modern Ithaki—let alone to Lefkada.
Conclusion:
The identification of Homer’s Neriton with Mount Ainos confirms again that the southeastern part of Cephalonia was the heart of Homeric Ithaca. It provided the island with its most celebrated symbol, the towering mountain that Homer and Athena alike presented as the proudest landmark of Odysseus’
Seventh Confirmation
The Harbor of Rheithron
In the Odyssey, the “harbor of Rheithron/εν λιμένι ρείθρω” is mentioned as the central port of the city, described as hemeteros limenas (“our harbor,” Od. 16. 471–473). It was located within a river channel (reithron) and characterized as polyventhēs/ πολυβενθής (Od. 16. 352). This epithet indicates not deep waters, but the way the sea penetrated “deeply” inland, merging with the flowing waters of the riverbed.
νηῦς δέ μοι ἥδ' ἕστηκεν ἐπ' ἀγροῦ νόσφι πόληος,ἐν λιμένι Ῥείθρῳ, ὑπὸ Νηΐῳ ὑλήεντι. (Odyssey 1. 186–187)
“My ship lies moored away from the city,
in the harbor of Rheithron, beneath the wooded Neïon.”
Geographical Identification:
The location of this harbor survives today in the spectacular gorge of Poros, through which flows the river Vochinas. Even now, the coastal area retains toponyms that echo the Homeric description:[ ρείθρον - ράγια - ρωγός ]
-
Ragia (gap on the seashore),
-
Rogos (passage, passageway),
-
Rheithron (“streambed”).
This river harbor served as the port of the ancient city-state of Pronnoi. It included harbor installations and fortifications within and alongside the river channel. The natural morphology—sea water entering the gorge and mingling with the river—explains exactly why Homer describes the port as polyventhēs.
Archaeological and Historical Continuity:
-
According to geographer J. Partsch, the gorge of Poros is “perhaps the most beautiful landscape of the entire island of Cephalonia.”
-
The harbor remained in use for small vessels until the mid-20th century. In 1936 the riverbeds began to be filled in, and later concreted, mainly to combat the local mosquito problem.
Visual Evidence:
Today, the cemented riverbeds of the Vochinas mark the spot of what was once the famous “Harbor of Rheithron”, the lifeline port of Homeric Ithaca’s urban center. (Photo: Maria Gkiáfi)
Homeric Ithaca: The Southeastern Cephalonia Hypothesis
After these preliminary references, it seems that the time has come to
address, with a clear “true or false,” the following logical questions:
Is it true or false that the island which, due
to its geographical proximity, could most readily maintain daily and close
relations with Elis (the modern region of Kyllini) is the island of present-day
Cephalonia (its southeastern part), and indeed far more convincingly than any
other island or region—such as Lefkada, modern Ithaca, or the Paliki
peninsula—that claim to be the site of Homeric Ithaca? (See relevant maps.)
Is it true or false that present-day
Cephalonia—as described in the Homeric texts as the island of Odysseus—is the
one most exposed to the sea “toward the setting of the sun” (toward the west),
while at the same time, and in perfect accordance with the description “amphi,”
it has other islands lying “on both sides” of it? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/11/blog-post_10.html)
Is it true or false that the southeastern part
of Cephalonia is the portion of the island closest to the Peloponnese (Elis)
and the region of the Achelous River? (See relevant maps.)
Is it true or false that the first
coastline—that is, the southernmost shore of Cephalonia—can only be the coastal
zone of Skala? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/01/1.html)
Is it true or false that near this coast,
according to the epic descriptions, lay the area where Eumaeus kept his herds,
and not far from this same area were located the city and the palace of
Odysseus? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/01/1.html)
Is it true or false that in southeastern
Cephalonia one finds more irrigating springs of running water than in any other
part of the island? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/05/2.html)
Is it true or false that the “Great Mountain,”
today’s Mount Ainos—the ancient Mount Neriton of Homeric Ithaca, whose
impressive silhouette was visible even from Cape Phées (modern Katakolo) on the
Peloponnese—was and remains the central landmark and point of reference of this
region and beyond? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2016/01/blog-post_14.html)
Is it true or false that several hours’ walk
inland from the first coast (Skala beach) and the city lies the famed Cave of
the Nymphs, dedicated to the Naiad water nymphs, described in the epic as the
dwelling place of the “bees”—that is, the modern cave-lake of Melissani? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2016/01/blog-post_10.html)
Is it true or false that within the riverbed
of the Vochyna stream, in the gorge of Poros, we encounter the legendary harbor
of Reithron, described as being situated within the bed of a river? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/05/2.html)
Is it true or false that, moving inland from
the harbor of Reithron in the Poros gorge, we indeed encounter a Mycenaean
settlement at the site of Riza Tzannata—located in position and at a distance
from the Reithron harbor exactly as described for the city of Homeric
Ithaca—and that directly above this settlement rises a chain of hills known
today as Pyrovouni (the ancient “Hermes Hill”), which served to control
maritime navigation and still preserves remnants of ancient fortifications,
watchtowers, and signal stations? (See: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/05/2.html)
Is it true or false that for all these questions—both collectively and individually—this specific region corresponds with absolute accuracy to the Homeric descriptions, while none of the other proposed areas or islands possesses a single feature or argument that could outweigh it in comparison? (As for the argument of the “Lefkadists,” who invoke the stereotypical verse pun οὐ μὲν γάρ τί σε πεζὸν ὀΐομαι ἐνθάδ᾽ ἱκέσθαι, see note 2.)
Beyond stretches the fertile Herakleian plain, dominated by the majestic, fir-clad Mount Ainos, the “Neriton,” celebrated as the pride of Odysseus and of all Cephallenians everywhere (Odyssey 9.19–28).
At the end of the gorge, upon the prominent hill of Bourzi–Rogos at the village of Riza–Tzanata, a powerful Mycenaean center arose in Odysseus’ time. Archaeology suggests that this center exercised dominion over the four Ionian islands (Cephalonia, Ithaca, Lefkada, Zakynthos) as well as adjacent coastal territories.
If we answer the obvious—that the first coastline on the southern side is the coastal zone of Skala, and that near this coast, according to the descriptions in the Odyssey, was the place where Eumaeus kept his herds, and not far from this area lay the city and palace of Odysseus, having nearby a riverine harbor situated within a gorge; that this region is the point closest to the shores of Elis; that it possesses the greatest abundance of running waters; that within it stands the famous forest-clad mountain Neriton (today’s Mount Ainos); and that some distance away from the city lies the wondrous Cave of the Nymphs, dwelling of the “Bees” (the Melissani cave)—then we must ask ourselves:
What is it that prevents us from accepting the
obvious and compels us to continue gazing at our own navel, when precisely in
this very region, the archaeologist’s spade—according to the archaeologists’
own statements—has uncovered the evidence of a major Mycenaean center (the only
one so far discovered in the western Greek islands) dating to the era of
Odysseus?
Our assessment is that the decisive factor
here, beyond the prevailing academic opinion that views the Homeric texts
merely as poetic compositions of the early Archaic period (which, as it is
often said, was “not obliged” to provide lessons in geography), lies in our own
limitations of belief and, in some cases, our various ideological fixations.
These unconscious predispositions guide and hinder us from perceiving, with
clarity of mind and critical reasoning, all that these texts—and the
accompanying archaeological evidence—truly reveal.
Many of these questions would already have
been answered if the scholarly community had devoted more time to research, so
that numerous distortions could be corrected and we might respond convincingly
to whether the Homeric Epics are indeed products of Mycenaean composition or,
as the prevailing view holds, poetic syntheses of the early historical
period—records of memories from an earlier age.
Verifying
the accuracy and realism of Homeric topography in relation to past and present
reality.
It is reasonable, however, for one to ask whether the apparent meaning of the Homeric descriptions truly corresponds to reality—that is, whether the southeastern part of the island of Cephalonia would in fact have been the most suitable location for the city of Homeric Ithaca, not because the Epic happens to describe it so (one might argue “by poetic license”), but because reality itself—life as it was actually lived—would have dictated it by necessity.
To address this hypothesis, we now invite you to agree or disagree with a
series of logical arguments and factual geographical data, while examining the
map that records the position of ancient Ithaca—namely, modern Cephalonia—and,
around it, the totality of the islands and mainland possessions that belonged
to this insular kingdom, both on the coast of Aetolia and along the
northwestern Peloponnese. We shall, accordingly, pose several “rhetorical”
questions.
A map on the
left depicts the insular kingdom of Odysseus, while the one on the right
presents this same kingdom in relation to the other Mycenaean centers of
mainland Greece and the Peloponnese.
Let us assume that you have no prior knowledge
of where the center of Homeric Ithaca was located—that you have never read
Homer, or that, for some reason, such information had not been preserved in the
Odyssey. Suppose, instead, that someone
presented you with a map of Mycenaean Greece, where the island realm of
Odysseus and all other Mycenaean centers are marked, and asked you the
following:
According to the geographical realities of
that era, which point within his island dominion would you consider the most
suitable to have been chosen as the administrative center of this maritime
kingdom? In other words, upon viewing this map, which island would you deem to
have been the ideal place for the ruling class of the time to establish its
seat of power—so that it might easily maintain direct and visible contact with
all the islands and opposite mainland coasts under its control, including the
region of the Achelous River and northwestern Peloponnese (Elis), as well as
with the other major Mycenaean centers of the period, all of which were
situated directly across from the southeastern shores of Cephalonia?
- Would it be the island of Lefkada?
- Would it be the island of Ithaca?
- Would it be the peninsula of Paliki?
- Would it be the peninsula of Erissos?
- Would it be the region of ancient Krane?
- Or might it, rather, be the southeastern part of the island of Cephalonia?
In our view, all the available data unmistakably point to the southeastern section of Cephalonia, which lies at the most central point of the entire insular complex—Lefkada, Ithaca, Cephalonia, Zakynthos, Achelous, and Kyllini—facing directly toward all the other Mycenaean centers located along the coasts of mainland Greece and the Peloponnese. It would indeed be a rare and extraordinary paradox were we ever to find that the Mycenaean center of the Cephallenians had been situated in the west (that is, on the peninsulas of Paliki or Erissos), completely isolated, lacking visibility, and literally turning its back to the other Mycenaean centers.
- Was it the island of Ithaca?
- Was it the island of Lefkada?
- Was it the island of Cephalonia?
- And if it was Cephalonia—as indeed it was—then which part of the island commanded full control over these maritime routes? Was it the southeastern coast? The northern? Or the western?
The southeastern tip of Cephalonia is, quite
evidently, the ideal geostrategic location for the control of both the maritime
and the terrestrial zones of western insular Greece. It was precisely this
position that, according to current archaeological findings, the Mycenaeans of
that era appear to have chosen for the foundation and establishment of their
own administrative and territorial control center in western island Greece.
Common sense dictates that this region—particularly
during the Mycenaean period—would have been chosen by the ruling elite of the
time for this very purpose, even, as one might say, “with their eyes closed.”
The importance of the geostrategic position of
southeastern Cephalonia was underlined some years ago by archaeologist Dr.
Lazaros Kolonas in his presentation at the 7th Pan-Ionian Conference, entitled “Ancient Settlements of Southeastern Cephalonia:
Sites of Strategic Control over the Maritime and Terrestrial Territory of the
Region” (Proceedings of the 7th
Pan-Ionian Conference, vol. B, pp. 37–46).
The historian Polybius (5.3.6–9) also confirms
the geostrategic position of Cephalonia—particularly its southeastern coast
facing Acarnania—describing it as “a naturally advantageous base of operations
against the territory of the enemy.”
All the evidence therefore indicates that the southeastern part of the
island of Cephalonia would have been the most ideal area of the island, providing
to the fullest extent all the necessary advantages and conveniences.
And yet, nearly 120 years have already passed
since archaeological exploration began its long and targeted quest to locate
the palace of Odysseus.
- It has searched everywhere — on Ithaca, on Lefkada, at Krane, on the Paliki Peninsula, at Sami, at Erissos, at Eleios, at Skala.
- It has excavated everywhere — in Ithaca, in Lefkada, in Krane, in Paliki, in Sami, in Erissos, in Eleios, in Skala.
- Everywhere… except precisely in this region!
Can anyone explain this paradox?
The overall answer to all these questions is precisely what one would expect — and it confirms, quite simply, the obvious.
(Addendum)
As readers may have already discerned, we deemed it unnecessary to engage in detailed argumentation regarding the claim advanced by proponents of the Lefkada hypothesis—and, more recently, of the Paliki peninsula as well—that the recurring stereotypical Homeric line, the wordplay "οὐ μὲν γάρ τί σε πεζὸν ὀΐομαι ἐνθάδ᾽ ἱκέσθαι" (“I do not suppose you came here on foot,” Od. 1. 173, Od.14. 190, Od.16. 59, Od.16. 224), can be validated only by identifying Homeric Ithaca with Lefkada. Their reasoning is that Lefkada is allegedly the only island to which one could have reached “on foot,” provided its landmass had once been connected to the adjacent mainland shores; hence, they argue… Homeric Ithaca = Lefkada, or alternatively, Homeric Ithaca = the Paliki peninsula.
We did not pursue this line of argument because, quite simply, we are dealing with one of the many recurrent formulaic verses—in this case, a playful one—that appear frequently throughout the Homeric text. It is not worth devoting extended analysis to such a point.
In any case, Homeric Ithaca is consistently described as a nēsos amphialos (Od. 1.386, 1. 394, 1. 401, 2. 292, 21. 251), that is, an island entirely surrounded by the sea. Naturally, therefore, anyone arriving there from another land would necessarily have travelled by ship—unless, of course, he possessed the Christ-like ability to walk upon the waves.
Regarding their second sophistry—that Zophos (the quarter of darkness where the sun descends) is allegedly to be equated not with the West, but with the North, achieved by artfully rotating the map—we have already addressed this briefly in the present publication under the “correct or incorrect” question no. 2. The appeal to certain medieval hand‑drawn maps—whose distortions of reality were inevitable—cannot serve as evidence to substantiate their claims, especially since other maps of the same era depict Lefkada in entirely different, often opposite, orientations. What ultimately matters is not what any ancient commentator or cartographer imagined the world to be, but what Homer says—and this differs fundamentally from what such claims attempt to impose.
For the readers’ benefit, we may note that Homer explicitly contrasts the quarter of Zophos (the region of darkness—West) with that of the East, using the North as his point of orientation:
«…εἴτ' ἐπὶ δεξί' ἴωσι πρός ἠῶ τ' ἠέλιόν τε,
εἴτ' ἐπ' ἀριστερὰ τοί γε ποτί ζόφον ἠερόεντα….» Il. 12. 239–240
Beyond this novel reinterpretation of “Zophos” through cartographic manipulation, the proponents of the Lefkada theory also overlook what is essential: that the island which lies “most towards Zophos”—Homer’s Ithaca—must simultaneously have amphi, that is, other named islands around it or at least on both opposing sides (“on either hand”). These islands must be drawn from among the three mentioned: Doulichion, Same, and Zakynthos. Unfortunately for advocates of the Lefkada hypothesis, Lefkada—given its solitary position in the north, while all the other islands lie to the south—could never have fulfilled such a requirement.
For those wishing to examine our extended analysis, see: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/11/blog-post_10.html.
As to why modern Lefkada—or the Paliki peninsula—neither was nor can be Homeric Ithaca, we have endeavored to demonstrate this throughout a sequence of related studies. Our intention has never been to enter into polemics aimed at dismantling weak arguments; we avoid such engagement unless invited to respond.
For clarity, we remind readers that Homeric Ithaca encompassed the entirety of ancient Cephalonia, including both the Paliki and Erissos peninsulas.
Regarding the long‑debated verse οὐδ᾽ εὐρεῖα Ἰθάκη (Od. 13. 243), Dr. Vangelis Pantazis (Kefalliniaka Hronika, vol. 8, 1999) demonstrated conclusively that the authentic Homeric reading was εὐρεία Ἰθάκη (“broad Ithaca”) and not the later modified forms designed to match the smaller historical island of Ithaki. According to Pantazis, the genuine reading—«οὐδέ λίην λυπρή, αυτάρ δ’ εὐρεία τέτυκται»—is preserved in a text of Tryphon the Grammarian (1st c. BC – 1st c. AD).
Concerning the disputed line μεσσηγὺς Ἰθάκης τε Σάμοιό τε παιπαλοέσσης (Od. 4. 845), we have treated it extensively in “Asteris: the Phantom Island of Homeric Topography,” arguing that it belongs to a class of later interpolations. See also O. Metaxas, *The Biography of the Odyssey* (forthcoming) and: http://homericithaca.blogspot.gr/2017/10/blog-post_15.html.
